Pyramid Of The Sun

Teotihuacán [teotiwa'kan] was, at its height in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, the largest pre-Columbian city in the Americas. The name Teotihuacán is also used to refer to the civilization or culture that this city was the center of, which at its greatest extent included much of central Mexico. Its influence spread throughout Mesoamerica; evidence of Teotihuacano presence, if not outright political and economic control, can be seen at numerous sites in Veracruz and the Maya region.

The city was located in what is now the San Juan Teotihuacán municipality in the State of México, Mexico, approximately 40 km (about 24.8 miles) northeast of Mexico City. It covers a total surface area of 83 km² and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.

The name Teotihuacán was given by the Nahuatl-speaking Aztec centuries after the fall of the city. The term has been glossed as 'birthplace of the gods,' reflecting Nahua creation myths that took place in Teotihuacán. Another translation was offered by Thelma Sullivan, who interprets the name as "place of those who have the road of the gods.

"The original name of the city is unknown, but it appears in hieroglyphic texts from the Maya region as 'puh', or Place of Reeds. This suggests that the Maya understood Teotihuacán as a 'Place of Reeds' similar to other Central Mexican settlements that took the name 'Tollan,' such as Tula-Hidalgo and Cholula. This naming convention led to much confusion in the early 20th century as scholars debated whether Teotihuacán or Tula-Hidalgo was the Tollan described by 16th century chronicles. It now seems clear that 'Tollan' may be understood as a generic term applied to any large settlement, rather like the modern expression "the Big Smoke". In the Mesoamerican concept of urbanism, Tollan and other language equivalents serve as a metaphor, linking the bundles of reeds and rushes that formed part of the lacustrine environment of the Valley of Mexico and the large gathering of people in a city.

Origins and foundation

The early history of Teotihuacán is quite mysterious, and the origin of its founders is debated. For many years, archaeologists believed it was built by the Toltec people, an early Mexican civilization. This belief was based on Aztec writings which attributed the site to the Toltecs. However, the Nahuatl word "Toltec" means "great craftsman" and may not always refer to the Toltec civilization. Also, Teotihuacán predates the Toltec civilization, ruling them out as the city's founders. Other scholars have put forth the Totonac people as the founders of Teotihuacán, and the debate continues to this day. There is evidence that at least some of the people living in Teotihuacán came from areas influenced by the Teotihuacano civilization, including the Zapotec, Mixtec and Maya peoples. The culture and architecture of Teotihuacán was influenced by the Olmec people, who are considered to be the "mother civilization" of Mesoamerica. The earliest buildings at Teotihuacán date to about 200 BC, and the largest pyramid, the Pyramid of the Sun, was completed by 100 AD.

Zenith

The city reached its zenith between 150 and 450 CE, when it was the center of a powerful culture that dominated Mesoamerica, wielding power and influence comparable to ancient Rome. At its height the city covered over 30 km² (over 11½ square miles), and probably housed a population of over 150,000 people, possibly as many as 250,000. Various districts in the city housed people from across the Teotihuacano empire that spread south as far as Guatemala. Notably absent from the city are fortifications and military structures. Teotihuacán had a major influence on the Preclassic and Classic Maya, conquering several Maya centers including Tikal and influencing Maya culture. The Teotihuacano style of architecture was a major contribution to Mesoamerican culture. The stepped pyramids that were quite prominent in Maya and Aztec architecture came from Teotihuacán.[citation needed] This style of building was called "talud-tablero", where a rectangular panel (tablero) was placed over a sloping side (talud). The city was a center of industry, home to many potters, jewelers and craftsmen. Teotihuacán is known for producing a great number of obsidian artifacts. Unfortunately no ancient Teotihuacano non-ideographic texts are known to exist (or known to have existed), but mentions of the city in inscriptions from Maya cities show that Teotihuacán nobility travelled to and perhaps conquered local rulers as far away as Honduras. Maya inscriptions mention an individual nicknamed by scholars as "Spearthrower Owl", apparently ruler of Teotihuacán, who reigned for over 60 years and installed his relatives as rulers of Tikal and Uaxactún in Guatemala. Most of what we infer about the culture at Teotihuacán comes from the murals that adorn the site and others, like the Wagner Murals, found in private collections, and from hieroglyphic inscriptions made by the Maya describing their encounters with Teotihuacano conquerors.

Collapse

It was previously believed that sometime during the 7th or 8th centuries, the city was sacked and burned by invaders, possibly the Toltecs. More recent evidence, however, seems to indicate that the burning was limited to the structures and dwellings associated primarily with the elite class. Some see this as evidence that the burning was from an internal uprising and that the invasion theory is flawed due to the fact that early archaeological work on the city was focused exclusively on the palaces and temples, places used by the elites, and because all of these sites showed burning, archaeologists concluded that the whole city was burned. Instead, it is now known that the destruction in the city was focused on major civic structures along the Avenue of the Dead. Some statues seem to have been destroyed in a methodical way, their fragments dispersed. The fact that population began to decline around 500-600 AD also supports the internal unrest hypothesis. The decline of Teotihucán has been correlated with the droughts related to the Climate changes of 535–536. This theory is supported by the archeological remains that show a rise in the percentage of juvenile skeletons with evidence of malnutrition during the 6th century. This does not conflict with either of the above theories however since both increased warfare and internal unrest can also be effects of a general period of drought and famine. Other nearby centers like Cholula, Xochicalco, and Cacaxtla attempted to fill the powerful vacuum left by Teotihuacán's decline. They may have aligned themselves against Teotihuacán in an attempt to reduce its influence and power. The art and architecture at these sites shows an interest in emulating Teotihuacán forms, but also a more eclectic mix of motifs and iconography from other parts of Mesoamerica, particularly the Maya region.

People

There is archaeological evidence that Teotihuacán was a multi-ethnic city, with distinct Zapotec, Mixtec, Maya and what seem to be Nahua quarters. The Totonacs have always maintained that they were the ones who built it, a story that was corroborated later by the Aztecs.

Language

In his 2001 paper,Terrence Kaufman presents linguistic evidence suggesting that an important ethnic group in Teotihuacán was of Totonacan and/or Mixe-Zoquean linguistic affiliation. He uses this to explain general influences from Totonacan and Mixe-Zoquean languages in many other Mesoamerican languages many of which do not have any known history of contact with either of the above mentioned groups.

Religion

The religion of Teotihuacán is similar to those of other Mesoamerican cultures. Many of the same gods were worshiped, including the Feathered Serpent and The Rain god. Teotihuacán was a major religious center, and the priests probably had a great deal of political power. As with other Mesoamerican cultures, Teotihuacános practiced human sacrifice. Human bodies and animal sacrifices have been found during excavations of the pyramids at Teotihuacán; it is believed that when the buildings were expanded, sacrifices were made to dedicate the new building. The victims were probably enemy warriors captured in battle and then brought to the city to be ritually sacrificed so the city could prosper. Some were decapitated, some had their hearts removed, others were killed by being hit several times over the head and some were even buried alive. Animals that were considered sacred and represented mythical powers and military might were also buried alive but imprisoned in cages: cougars, a wolf, eagles, a falcon, an owl, and even venomous snakes.

The city's broad central avenue, called "Avenue of the Dead" (a translation from its Nahuatl name Miccaotli), is flanked by impressive ceremonial architecture, including the immense Pyramid of the Sun (second largest in the New World after the Great Pyramid of Cholula) and the Pyramid of the Moon. Along the Avenue of the Dead are many smaller talud-tablero platforms. The Aztecs believed they were tombs, inspiring the name of the avenue. Now they are known to be ceremonial platforms that were topped with temples. Further down the Avenue of the Dead is the area known as the Citadel, containing the ruined Temple of the Feathered Serpent. This area was a large plaza surrounded by temples that formed the religious and political center of the city. The name "Citadel" was given to it by the Spanish, who believed it was a fort. Many of the rich and powerful Teotihuacanos lived in Palaces near the temples. The largest of these cover more than 3300 sq. meters. Most of the common people lived in large apartment buildings spread across the city. Many of the buildings contained workshops that produced pottery and other gods.

The geographical layout of Teotihuacán is a good example of the Mesoamerican tradition of planning cities, settlements and buildings as a representation of the Teotihuacano view of the Universe. Its urban grid is aligned to precisely 15.5º east of north. The Street of the Dead, in particular, seems to line up with Cerro Gordo to the north of the Pyramid of the Moon. Pecked-cross circles throughout the city and in the surrounding regions indicate how the grid was managed over long distances

Pyramid

Dalam sejarah konstruksi bangunan Piramida digunakan sudah sejak lama. Bangsa bangsa Mesir kuno maupun bangsa Maya dikenal menggunakan bangunan piramida sebagai makam raja-raja masa dahulu serta sarana ibadah (pemujaan) selain ada dugaan sebagai tempat penimbunan (gudang) pangan sejak zaman Nabi Yusuf ketika persiapan menghadapi musim paceklik ataupun tempat penyimpanan harta.

Di beberapa daerah di Indonesia, dikenal bangunan yang memiliki konstruksi mirip piramida di antaranya penden berundak yang dikatakan sebagai prototipe piramida, maupun candi candi diantaranya yang mirip dengan konstruksi piramida adalah candi sukuh bahkan Candi Borobudur bisa dikatakan merupakan bentuk konstruksi piramida yang dimodifikasi.

Beragam analisis tentang digunakannya konstruksi piramida. Ada yang menyebutnya sebagai bangunan warisan UFO dengan alasan terdapat bangunan mirip piramida ditemukan di Mars yang berada satu lintang derajat yang sama dengan lintang derajat di Bumi, ada pula yang mengatakan peniggalan peradaban Atlantis dan sebagian lagi mengatakan bahwa konstruksi piramida digunakan dengan alasan bahwa pada peradaban lampau, manusia mengalami kesulitan untuk membuat konstruksi kubah. Oleh karena itu digunakanlah konstruksi piramida untuk mempermudah. Konstruksi kubah sendiri baru digunakan pada masa Romawi dengan konstruksi pelengkung pada bangunan betonnya dan Romawi Timur yang disempurnakan pada masa peradaban Islam.

Chichen Itza

Candi Chichen Itza merupakan peninggalan arkeologi suku Maya yang paling lengkap serta masih terawat dengan baik. Situs peradaban Maya di Meksiko ini, pada 7 Juli 2007, terpilih sebagai salah satu dari tujuh keajaiban dunia hasil pilihan 100 juta orang via email dan sms (layanan pesan singkat) yang diadakan oleh Swiss Foundation.
Menurut buku budaya suku Maya dari Chilam Balam, kompleks candi ini dibangun antara tahun 502-522 Masehi. Suku Maya hanya menempatinya selama 200 tahun, kemudian mereka berpindah ke daerah pantai di Campeche. Namun versi lain mengatakan, Chichen Itza dibangun sekitar 800 tahun sebelum masehi.
Piramida Kukulcan di kompleks situs bersejarah ini dipercaya sebagai pusat kegiatan politik dan ekonomi peradaban bangsa Maya yang terletak di Semenanjung Yucatan (kini wilayah Meksiko).
Itza merupakan titik sentral kompleks bangunan lainnya seperti Piramida Kukulcan, Candi Chac Mool, dan bangunan Seribu Tiang.
Di candi Chichen Itza terdapat dua cenotes (sumur alami) yang dijadikan tempat menaruh korban persembahan. Konon, suku Indian Maya yang mendiami kota itu mempersembahkan jade, keramik, dan bahkan manusia untuk dimasukkan dalam sumur itu. Persembahan itu diberikan saat kekeringan melanda. Persembahan kadang-kadang berupa gadis-gadis muda untuk dimasukkan hidup-hidup ke dalam sumur itu. Peran sumur itu begitu penting karena di Semenanjung Yukatan tidak terdapat sungai. Satu-satunya sumber air ketika kekeringan melanda adalah dari sumur-sumur itu.
Nama Chichen Itza pun berarti di bibir mata air rakyat dalam bahasa Indian setempat. Dengan demikian, Chichen Itza berkembang menjadi pusat pemerintahan dan ekonomi kebudayaan Maya.
Konon, Chichen Itza merupakan simbol pemujaan dan ilmu pengetahuan. Chichen Itza didirikan raja suku Toltec bernama Quetzalcoatl yang datang ke Semenanjung Yukatan bersama pasukannya. Saat itu suku Maya sudah berdiam di daerah tersebut, kemudian bersama-sama suku Toltec, mulai membangun berbagai kuil yang menyerupai piramid. Dengan demikian, periode puncak dari Chichen Itza merupakan campuran kebudayaan Toltec dan Maya.
Salah satu kuil terbesar yang didirikan adalah Kukulkan. Berdasarkan legenda Maya, Kukulkan merupakan Dewa Ular Berambut jelmaan dari Quetzalcoatl. Kuil Kukulkan berupa piramid bertangga, dengan teras-teras. Di setiap sisi piramid segi empat itu terdapat anak tangga menuju puncak. Di puncak terdapat jalan masuk menuju ruangan Mahkota Batu Jaguar Raja Kukulkan, yang dicat merah dan bintik-bintik hijau lumut.
Di Chichen Itza ini juga terdapat sebuah lapangan permainan yang mirip dengan permainan bola basket masa kini. Permainan 'pok ta pok' yakni melemparkan bola melewati sebuah lingkaran di dinding 7 meter di atas tanah. Kapten dari tim yang pertama kali berhasil menembakkan bola akan dipenggal kepalanya sebagai persembahan untuk dewa-dewa.
Pada tahun 1221, pemberontakan pecah. Atap-atap kayu, pasar dan kuil-kuil ksatria dibumihanguskan. Kekuasaan atas Yukatan pun berpindah ke Mayapan, sampai penakluk Spanyol datang.
Kompleks candi ini cukup luas dan tiap candi saling terpisah dengan yang lainnya. Di tengah-tengah berdiri candi El Castilo (Istana) yang selesai direnovasi. Bentuknya piramid, hanya atapnya tumpul. Melihat candi El Castilo mengingatkan kita pada candi Sukuh di Karanganyar, Solo. Kedua candi ini seperti saudara kembar.Keistimewaan candi El Castilo adalah undak-undakan menuju atas candi. Setiap tanggal 21Maret dan 23 September antara siang dan malam sama lamanya. Pada saat itu di siang hari, undak-undakan candi tertutup bayangan. Sehingga mata kita tertipu, seolah-olah ada banyak ular naik candi. Namun hari berikutnya pada waktu yang sama akan tampak seolah-olah ular itu turun undak-undakan.
Di sekitar kompleks candi terdapat patung yang bernama Red Jaguar. Menurut uskup Landa, di tempat inilah sering diadakan upacara korban. Korbannya terdiri dari macan tutul (Jaguar), kura-kura, ayam kalkun, anjing atau semua jantung binatang. Bahkan kadang korbannya juga manusia.
Di sekitar kompleks candi ditemukan pula delapan patung Chac Mool. Patung berbentuk manusia dengan posisi duduk menengadah. Kedua tanggannya sedang memegang sesaji dan kepalanya menoleh ke arah kiri. Chac Mool untuk memuja dewa hujan.
Masih di kompleks Chichen Itza terdapat dua tembok yang sama tingginya. Arena di antara dua tembok itu dipakai suku Maya untuk bermain bola. Dimungkinkan bola itu dibuat dari karet, mengingat di sekitar daerah itu tumbuh pohon karet. Tak hanya suku Maya yang senang bermain bola, namun juga suku Zapotek.